Publication Manual 7th Edition by The reference list at the end of a paper contains the essential details needed to locate and retrieve each work cited within the text. APA publications, along with other publishers and institutions that follow APA Style, typically require reference lists rather than bibliographies.
A reference list includes only the sources that directly support the ideas, arguments, and concepts presented in the paper. In contrast, a bibliography provides a broader collection of works for background information or further reading and may include notes, such as those found in an annotated bibliography.
A reference generally contains four basic elements: author, date, title, and source. Each element answers a question:
Considering these four elements and answering these four questions will help you create a reference for any type of work. The next step will be to assign the source to cite to the corresponding category.
When citing a source, it is essential to determine its reference category to ensure proper formatting. The Publication Manual organizes the citations in the following categories:
Once identified the correct categories for the source to cite, follow the specific APA rules to ensure accuracy. The following table contains examples with the citation structure for most common types of source.
| Reference Type | Paper Format Example | Digital Format Example |
|---|---|---|
| Journal Article | Smith, J. (2020). The effects of climate change. Journal of Environmental Studies, 45 (3), 123-135. | Smith, J. (2020). The effects of climate change. Journal of Environmental Studies, 45 (3), 123-135. https://doi.org/xx.xxxx |
| Book | Claridge, A., Toms, J., & Cubberley, T. (2010). Rome : an Oxford archaeological guide / Dr Amanda Claridge, with contributions by Judith Toms and Tony Cubberley. Oxford University Press. | Claridge, A., Toms, J., & Cubberley, T. (2010). Rome : an Oxford archaeological guide / Dr Amanda Claridge, with contributions by Judith Toms and Tony Cubberley. Oxford University Press. Research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=3975c8f1-68ff-3df7-95e1-b30a81bbf887 |
| Edited Book Chapter | Brown, L. (2019). The impact of urbanization. In K. Green (Ed.), Urban Development Studies (pp. 45-67). Springer. | Brown, L. (2019). The impact of urbanization. In K. Green (Ed.), Urban Development Studies (pp. 45-67). Springer. https://doi.org/xx.xxxx |
| Dissertation | Taylor, M. (2021). The evolution of education policies [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. University Press. | Taylor, M. (2021). The evolution of education policies [Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University]. ProQuest Dissertations. https://www.proquest.com/dissertation/xxxx |
| Conference Paper | Johnson, P. (2017). AI advancements in medicine. Proceedings of the International Conference on AI (pp. 89-102). | Johnson, P. (2017). AI advancements in medicine. Proceedings of the International Conference on AI (pp. 89-102). https://www.conference-proceedings.com/ai |
| Newspaper Article | Clark, R. (2022, May 5). The role of politics in healthcare. The Daily Times, p. A3. | Clark, R. (2022, May 5). The role of politics in healthcare. The Daily Times. https://www.dailytimes.com/article/healthcare |
| Government Report | U.S. Department of Health. (2015). National health statistics. Government Printing Office. | U.S. Department of Health. (2015). National health statistics. Government Printing Office. https://www.health.gov/reports/statistics |
| Social Media Post | N/A | Doe, J. (2023, January 15). The future of AI. Twitter. https://twitter.com/jdoe/status/xxxxx |
| Website Article | N/A | Smith, L. (2022). The impact of social media on youth. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/article/socialmedia |
| Online Forum Discussion | N/A | User123. (2021, July 10). What's the best coding language? [Online forum post]. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/programming/comments/xxxx |
| Podcast Episode | N/A | Brown, T. (Host). (2023, June 5). The future of technology [Audio podcast episode]. Tech Talks. https://www.podcast.com/techtalks/episode10 |
| Streaming Video | N/A | National Geographic. (2022, September 15). The wonders of the ocean [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxx |
In a reference, the term "author" broadly applies to the individual(s) or group responsible for creating a work. This includes not only the authors of articles, books, and reports but also those who played key roles in the work’s development, such as book editors, film directors, principal investigators of grants, and podcast hosts. Sometimes, an author may not be explicitly credited in a byline but can be identified through context.
For example, an organization is typically considered the author of an annual report it produced unless stated otherwise. Similarly, for webpages or websites belonging to organizations or government agencies, the entity itself is generally regarded as the author unless a specific author is named. Information about an author may also be found on an "About Us" or acknowledgments page. If no author can be determined, the work should be treated as having no author and referenced according to the synthax in the following tab.
| Authorship | Case Description | Example Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Single Author | List the author's last name followed by initials. | Smith, J. A. (2020). Understanding psychology. Oxford University Press. |
| Two Authors | List both authors' last names with an ampersand (&) between them. | Brown, L., & Johnson, R. (2021). Social dynamics in learning. Springer. |
| Three or More Authors | List only the first author followed by "et al." | Doe, J., et al. (2019). Advances in cognitive science. Cambridge University Press. |
| Group Author | Use the name of the organization as the author. | American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA. |
| No Author | Move the title to the author position. | Understanding artificial intelligence. (2022). MIT Press. |
The date refers to the date of publication. For books, cite the copyright date listed on the copyright page as the publication date in the reference, even if it differs from the release date (e.g., a book released in December 2019 with a 2020 copyright date should be cited as 2020). For journal articles, use the year of the volume as the publication date, even if it differs from the copyright year.
When citing webpages and websites, confirm that the copyright date specifically applies to the content being referenced. Avoid using a general copyright date from a webpage footer, as it may not reflect when the content was published. If the page includes a "last updated" note relevant to the cited content, use that date (see Section 9.15). If no distinct publication date is provided, consider the work undated.
| Publishing Date | Case Description | Example Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Year Only | Use only the publication year when a more specific date is not required. | Smith, J. (2020). Understanding cognitive processes. Oxford University Press. |
| Specific Date | Include the full date (year, month, and day) when the source provides it. | Brown, L. (2021, March 15). The effects of social media on teenagers. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com |
| Last Updated Date | If the webpage or document has a "last updated" date relevant to the content being cited, use that date. | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). COVID-19 updates. CDC. Retrieved July 10, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov |
| No Date | Use "n.d." (no date) when no publication or update date is available. | Doe, J. (n.d.). Artificial intelligence and ethics. Cambridge University Press. |
In a reference, the title refers to the specific work being cited. Titles generally fall into two main categories: works that stand alone (such as entire books, reports, dissertations, gray literature, data sets, films, TV series, podcasts, social media posts, and website content) and works that are part of a larger whole (such as journal articles, book chapters in edited collections, and episodes of TV shows or podcasts).
For standalone works (e.g., a report), the title is placed in the title element of the reference. For works that are part of a larger source (e.g., a journal article or an edited book chapter), the individual work's title appears in the title element, while the larger source (such as the journal or edited book) is included in the source element. The table underneth provides exapmpes for standalone works and those part of a greater whole.
| Category | Example Reference |
|---|---|
| Standalone Work. Report | American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA. |
|
Standalone Work. Dataset |
Pew Research Center. (2021). Social media use in 2021 [Data set]. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/ |
|
Standalone Work. Book |
Smith, J. A. (2019). Cognitive psychology: An introduction. Oxford University Press. |
| Part of a Greater Whole. Journal article |
Belacchi, C., & Artuso, C. (2018). How taxonomic and thematic associations in semantic memory modulate recall in young through old-old adults. Psychology and Aging , 33 (7), 1060–1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000297 |
| Part of a Greater Whole. Edited book chapter | Johnson, L. M. (2020). The impact of social media on adolescent development. In R. K. Lee (Ed.), Digital age psychology (pp. 45–62). Springer. |
| Part of a Greater Whole. TV episode | Gilligan, V. (Writer & Director). (2009). Face off (Season 2, Episode 13) [TV series episode]. In M. Johnson (Executive Producer), Breaking Bad. AMC. |
Further details on the rules to reference standalone works (section 9.25) and those part of a greater whole (section 9.28) are explained in the respective Sections from the manual.
In a reference, the source identifies where readers can access the cited work. Similar to titles (see Section 9.18), sources are categorized into two main types: works that are part of a larger whole and standalone works.
| Source | Example Reference |
|---|---|
| Journal Article | Smith, J. A. (2021). Understanding behavior in social groups. Journal of Social Psychology, 45(2), 123-140. https://doi.org/xxxxx |
| Edited Book Chapter | Johnson, L. M. (2020). The role of emotions in learning. In R. K. Lee (Ed.), Educational Psychology Today (pp. 85-102). Springer. |
| Standalone Work (Book, Report) | Doe, J. (2019). The impact of technology on education. Oxford University Press. |
| Database or Archive | National Institute of Health. (2022). Mental health research findings [Data set]. PsycINFO. |
| Conference Presentation | Brown, R. (2023, May). The future of artificial intelligence in education [Conference presentation]. Annual Education Research Symposium, Boston, MA. |
| Social Media Post | NOOA Climate.Gov. (2025, January 29). Polar Vortex intensifications [Facebook post]. Facebook. |
| Website | World Health Organization. (n.d.). COVID-19 safety guidelines. WHO. Retrieved January 5, 2024, from https://www.who.int |
| Source with DOI or URL | Miller, T. (2022). The role of climate science in policymaking. Environmental Studies Journal, 50(4), 200-215. https://doi.org/xxxxx |
This table provides a summarized way to format APA references and in-text citations when certain elements are missing.
| Missing element | Solution | Reference list entry format | In-Text citation format |
|---|---|---|---|
| None (All elements present) | Include author, date, title, and source. | Author. (Year). Title. Source. | (Author, Year) / Author (Year) |
| Author Missing | Include title, date, and source. | Title. (Year). Source. | (Title, Year) / Title (Year) |
| Date Missing | Include author, write “n.d.” for no date, and add the title and source. | Author. (n.d.). Title. Source. | (Author, n.d.) / Author (n.d.) |
| Title Missing | Provide author and date, then describe the work in square brackets, followed by the source. | Author. (Year). [Description of work]. Source. | (Author, Year) / Author (Year) |
| Author and Date Missing | Write “n.d.” for no date, then provide the title and source. | Title. (n.d.). Source. | (Title, n.d.) / Title (n.d.) |
| Author and Title Missing | Describe the work in square brackets, include date, then provide the source. | [Description of work]. (Year). Source. | ([Description of work], Year) / [Description of work] (Year) |
| Date and Title Missing | Write “n.d.” for no date, describe the work in square brackets, then provide the source. | Author. (n.d.). [Description of work]. Source. | (Author, n.d.) / Author (n.d.) |
| Author, Date, and Title Missing | Describe the work in square brackets, write “n.d.” for no date, then provide the source. | [Description of work]. (n.d.). Source. | ([Description of work], n.d.) / [Description of work] (n.d.) |
| Source Missing | Cite as a personal communication or find another work to cite. | No reference list entry | (C. C. Communicator, personal communication, Month Day, Year) |
The following guidelines will help you properly format your reference list in APA Style:
• Begin the reference list on a new page after the text.
• Place the section label "References" in bold at the top of the page, centered.
• Order the reference list entries alphabetically by author, as described in Sections 9.44 to 9.48 from the manual.
• Double-space the entire reference list (both within and between entries).
• Apply a hanging indent of 0.5 in. to each reference list entry, meaning that the first line of the reference is flush left and subsequent lines are indented 0.5 in. from the left margino Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program to apply the hanging indent.
Works are listed in alphabetical order as per the first word of the reference entry which is usually the surname of the first author. For further guidelines on how to alphabetize sources visit the APA style website in the reference list setup section.
